Subjective economic inequality evokes interpersonal objectification.

Interpersonal objectification, treating people as tools and neglecting their essential humanness, is a pervasive and enduring phenomenon. Across five studies (N = 1183), we examined whether subjective economic inequality increases objectification through a calculative mindset. Study 1 revealed that the perceptions of economic inequality at the national level and in daily life were positively associated with objectification. Studies 2 and 3 demonstrated a causal relationship between subjective economic inequality and objectification in a fictitious organization and society, respectively. Moreover, the effect was mediated by a calculative mindset (Studies 3-4). In addition, lowering a calculative mindset weakened the effect of subjective inequality on objectification (Study 4). Finally, increased objectification due to subjective inequality further decreased prosociality and enhanced exploitative intentions (Study 5). Taken together, our findings suggest that subjective economic inequality increases objectification, which further causes adverse interpersonal interactions.

A synthesis of evidence for policy from behavioural science during COVID-19.

Scientific evidence regularly guides policy decisions1, with behavioural science increasingly part of this process2. In April 2020, an influential paper3 proposed 19 policy recommendations ('claims') detailing how evidence from behavioural science could contribute to efforts to reduce impacts and end the COVID-19 pandemic. Here we assess 747 pandemic-related research articles that empirically investigated those claims. We report the scale of evidence and whether evidence supports them to indicate applicability for policymaking. Two independent teams, involving 72 reviewers, found evidence for 18 of 19 claims, with both teams finding evidence supporting 16 (89%) of those 18 claims. The strongest evidence supported claims that anticipated culture, polarization and misinformation would be associated with policy effectiveness. Claims suggesting trusted leaders and positive social norms increased adherence to behavioural interventions also had strong empirical support, as did appealing to social consensus or bipartisan agreement. Targeted language in messaging yielded mixed effects and there were no effects for highlighting individual benefits or protecting others. No available evidence existed to assess any distinct differences in effects between using the terms 'physical distancing' and 'social distancing'. Analysis of 463 papers containing data showed generally large samples; 418 involved human participants with a mean of 16,848 (median of 1,699). That statistical power underscored improved suitability of behavioural science research for informing policy decisions. Furthermore, by implementing a standardized approach to evidence selection and synthesis, we amplify broader implications for advancing scientific evidence in policy formulation and prioritization.

Belief in School Meritocracy and the Legitimization of Social and Income Inequality.

Educational institutions are imbued with an institutional meritocratic discourse: only merit counts for academic success. In this article, we study whether this institutional belief has an impact beyond its primary function of encouraging students to study. We propose that belief in school meritocracy has broader societal impact by legitimizing the social class hierarchy it produces and encouraging the maintenance of inequalities. The results of four studies (one correlational study, Ntotal = 198; one experiment, Ntotal = 198; and two international data surveys, Ntotal = 88,421 in 40+countries) indicate that belief in school meritocracy reduces the perceived unfairness of social class inequality in society, support for affirmative action policies at university and support for policies aimed at reducing income inequality. Together, these studies show that the belief that schools are meritocratic carries consequences beyond the school context as it is associated with attitudes that maintain social class and economic inequality.

A world together: Global citizen identification as a basis for prosociality in the face of COVID-19.

How do global citizens respond to a global health emergency? The present research examined the association between global citizen identification and prosociality using two cross-national datasets-the World Values Survey (Study 1, N = 93,338 from 60 countries and regions) and data collected in 11 countries at the start of the COVID-19 pandemic (Study 2, N = 5,427). Results showed that individuals who identified more strongly as global citizens reported greater prosociality both generally (Study 1) and more specifically in the COVID-19 global health emergency (Study 2). Notably, global citizen identification was a stronger predictor of prosociality in response to COVID-19 than national identification (Study 2). Moreover, analyses revealed that shared ingroup identity accounted for the positive association between global citizen identification and prosociality (Study 2). Overall, these findings highlight global citizenship as a unique and promising direction in promoting prosociality and solidarity, especially in the fight against COVID-19.

How living in economically unequal societies shapes our minds and our social lives.

In recent decades, the economies of many countries have produced increasingly unequal outcomes for the rich and poor. This economic trend has attracted interest from members of the media, public and political classes as well as researchers who are interested in its societal implications. While this research has traditionally been the purview of economists and sociologists, there has been a burgeoning growth in research that has sought to understand the psychology of economic inequality. In this review, we summarize this work, focusing on two major themes: (1) how people perceive the scale of economic inequality and appraise its significance, and (2) how living in an economically unequal environment shapes people's social lives. Together, this work affirms claims that economic inequality is 'the defining issue of our time' (Obama, 2013) with a great deal of destructive potential. We identify important questions that await further research attention.

Restless in an Unequal World: Economic Inequality Fuels the Desire for Wealth and Status.

Building on theories explaining social outcomes of economic inequality, our research examined the psychological impact of inequality on the desire for wealth and status. Our studies provide both experimental (Studies 1 and 3, Ns = 321 and 596) and correlational (Study 2; N = 141,477 from 73 countries and regions) evidence that higher inequality heightens people's desire for wealth and status. Notably, this effect of inequality on desire is independent of the influence of societal wealth. Moreover, our results reveal social class differences in why inequality fuels motivations: Lower-class individuals are more likely to respond to higher inequality with a heightened desire reflecting self-improvement concerns, whereas upper-class individuals are more likely to respond with a heightened desire reflecting social comparison concerns. These findings suggest that higher inequality creates an environment of restlessness in which both the poor and the rich feel obliged to seek wealth and status, albeit for different reasons.

A history of collective resilience and collective victimhood: Two sides of the same coin that explain Black Americans' present-day responses to oppression.

Collective victimhood and collective resilience are two sides of the same coin. However, most literature to date has focused on the experiences and consequences of collective victimhood. In the present research, we focused on the experiences of Black Americans, a group that has a legacy of victimization and resilience. As a part of Black Americans' collective memory, we explored the nature of historical collective resilience and examined its role in explaining collective responses to present-day oppression, over and above any effect of historical collective victimhood. When they were asked to reflect on their group's history, across Studies 1 (N = 272) and 2 (N = 294), we found that Black Americans generated narratives of collective resilience. In both studies, we also found evidence that perceived historical collective resilience was linked to a greater sense of collective continuity, which, in turn, explained greater support for the ongoing Black Lives Matter movement. Our findings underscore the importance of considering narratives of resilience in a group's history and point to the way such collective resilience narratives can serve as a resource for the group in the present.

How conceptualizing obesity as a disease affects beliefs about weight, and associated weight stigma and clinical decision-making in health care.

OBJECTIVES: This study empirically investigated how conceptualizing obesity as a disease (i.e., pathologizing obesity) affects beliefs about weight, and weight stigma and discrimination among health professionals. DESIGN: An experiment that manipulated the pathologization of obesity was completed by a multi-nation sample of health professionals from Australia, UK, and USA (N = 365). METHODS: Participants were randomly assigned to one of two conditions where they were asked to conceptualize obesity as a disease or not a disease; then presented with a hypothetical medical profile of a patient with obesity who was seeking care for migraines. We measured biogenetic causal beliefs about obesity, endorsement of weight as a heuristic for health, negative obesity stereotypes, and treatment decisions. RESULTS: Participants in the disease (vs. non-disease) condition endorsed biogenetic causal beliefs more strongly and made more migraine-related treatment recommendations. No effect of the manipulation was found for the remaining outcomes. Biogenetic causal beliefs about obesity were associated with less weight stigma. Endorsing weight as a heuristic for health was associated with greater weight stigma and differential treatment recommendations focused more on the patient's weight and less on their migraines. CONCLUSIONS: Pathologizing obesity may reinforce biogenetic explanations for obesity. Evidence demonstrates complex associations between weight-related beliefs and weight stigma and discrimination. Biogenetic causal beliefs were associated with less weight stigma, while endorsing weight as a heuristic for health was associated with greater weight stigma and differential treatment. Further research is needed to inform policies that can promote health without perpetuating weight-based rejection in health care.

Group memberships and post-traumatic growth: How we connect determines how we recover.

This paper examines key processes from the social identity model of traumatic identity change in the context of the aftermath of a natural disaster. It focuses on the roles of (i) group membership gain, (ii) group membership continuity, (iii) social identity revitalisation, and (iv) the severity of natural disaster exposure on post-traumatic growth (PTG) and post-traumatic stress (PTS). PARTICIPANTS: (N = 410, Mage = 53.24 years) comprised adult survivors of the Australian 2019-20 Black Summer bushfires, recruited to complete an online survey via geo-targeted Facebook advertisements. RESULTS: showed that group membership gain was positively correlated with PTG, whilst group membership continuity negatively correlated with PTS, highlighting the different roles played by group gain and continuity in post-trauma recovery. Preliminary evidence for the validity of a new author-developed social identity revitalisation measure was found, which mediated some relationships between group gain and continuity and PTG and PTS. Lastly, the extent that participants were affected by the fires moderated the relationship between group gain and PTS. Specifically, for those most affected, group gain was correlated with lower reported PTS, whilst for those less affected, group gain was correlated with higher reported PTS. We discuss implications for theory and draw attention to the concept of revitalisation, which shows promise as a potentially critical contributor to post-trauma recovery.

State level income inequality affects cardiovascular stress responses: Evidence from the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) study.

RATIONALE: The slow and insidious effects of income inequality on health means that their effects can be difficult to reveal, taking many years to become apparent. These effects can also be experienced differently according to subjective status and ethnicity making the relation between income inequality and health difficult to understand. Cardiovascular reactions to acute stress are indicative of future health outcomes. OBJECTIVE: To examine whether short to medium term income inequality affected cardiovascular responses to acute stress whilst accounting for ethnic groups and subjective status. METHOD: Participants state of residence was available for 1155 people who participated in the MIDUS biomarker data project. This detail was used to merge the relevant US state level inequality data 1, 5, 10 and 15 years prior to the MIDUS biomarker data project which assessed cardiovascular responses to acute stress. RESULTS: Our analysis demonstrated an association between inequality 5, 10 and 15 year prior and cardiovascular reactions to acute stress. Subjective community status and Black and minority ethnic group membership interacted to affect the association between inequality and cardiovascular reactions. CONCLUSIONS: In states where income inequality was high, less healthy cardiovascular responses were evident. However lower subjective community status and Black and Ethnic minority group members interacted with income inequality such that their impact was variable contingent on state level inequality. These findings extend the literature on income inequality and health and particularly highlights a psychophysiology pathway linking income inequality and health.

Double jeopardy: How lower levels of support during COVID-19 exacerbated the relationship between loneliness and distress.

While the relationship between loneliness and psychological distress is well documented, the mechanisms underlying this relationship are less clear. One factor known to be related to loneliness as well as psychological distress, is social support, with some studies suggesting that support-both received and provided-can serve as a mechanism to reduce the distress associated with loneliness. In this paper we examine the mediating role of both aspects of support in the relationship between loneliness and psychological distress in the COVID-19 context. We used a multi-country dataset collected at two timepoints during the pandemic; the first during the early stages (N = 6,842, 11 countries) and the second collected for a subset of countries (N = 1,299, 3 countries) 3 months later. Across all eleven countries, results revealed significant positive associations between loneliness and distress. Furthermore, using longitudinal data, we investigated the directionality of this relationship and found that increased loneliness over time was associated with increased psychological distress. The data also showed that both feeling unsupported and feeling unable to provide support to others mediated this relationship. These findings point to the need to facilitate people's ability to draw effective social support and help others-particularly at times when social connectedness is threatened-as a way of alleviating the psychological distress that commonly presents with loneliness.

Group? What group? A computational model of the group needs a psychology of "us" (not "them").

Groups are only real, and only serve as a basis for collective action, when their members perceive them to be real. For a computational model to have analytic fidelity and predictive validity it, therefore, needs to engage with the psychological reality of groups, their internal structure, and their structuring by (and of) the social context in which they function.

Economic inequality and conspiracy theories.

Can perceptions of economic inequalities trigger conspiratorial thinking? We provide evidence that high economic inequality may enhance conspiratorial thinking because, as a form of collective-level crisis, it undermines the social fabric of society and engenders anomie. We focus on the mechanism through which inequality should affect conspiratorial thinking by outlining how inequality enhances perceptions of anomie that, in turn, increase conspiratorial thinking. We end our contribution with the observation that it is by focusing on the socio-structural contexts that trigger conspiracy beliefs that we can more fully understand them. Specifically, conspiracy beliefs are not merely a product of individual irrationality, but are grounded in, and reflective of, the times that collectives live in.

Experiments make a good breakfast, but a poor supper.

Cesario's analysis has three key flaws. First, the focus on whether an effect is "real" (an "effects flaw") overlooks the importance of theory testing. Second, obsession with effects (a "fetishization flaw") sidelines theoretically informed questions about when and why an effect may arise. Third, failure to take stock of cultural and historical context (a "decontextualization flaw") strips findings of meaning.

'Who wants to silence us'? Perceived discrimination of conspiracy theory believers increases 'conspiracy theorist' identification when it comes from powerholders - But not from the general public.

We examined how individuals who may be labelled 'conspiracy theorists' respond to discrimination against 'conspiracy theorists'. In line with the Rejection-Identification Model (Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 135, 1999), we hypothesized that perceived group-based discrimination against conspiracy theorists would strengthen identification with the 'conspiracy theorist' ingroup. We propose that this relationship might be mediated by meta-conspiracy beliefs, that is, the belief that the discrimination of conspiracy theorists is itself a conspiracy. Three studies (Ns = 97, 364, 747) among participants who had been labelled as 'conspiracy theorist' in the past (Studies 1 and 2) or who had been labelled as such at the beginning of the experiment (Study 3) revealed robust positive relationships between perceived discrimination of conspiracy theorists, meta conspiracy beliefs, and identification. Furthermore, in Studies 2 and 3, identification was strongly associated with positive intergroup differentiation and pride to be a conspiracy theorist. However, there was no evidence that a manipulation of discrimination with bogus public opinion polls affected 'conspiracy theorist' identification or meta-conspiracy beliefs. A Bayesian internal meta-analysis of the studies returned moderate (for group identification) to strong (for meta-conspiracy beliefs) support for the null hypothesis. In contrast, in Study 3, a manipulation of discrimination by powerholders enhanced both identification and meta-conspiracy beliefs. This suggests that the source of discrimination moderates the causal relationship between perceived discrimination of conspiracy theorists and group identification.

Perceived legitimacy of weight-based discrimination: Consequences for group identity, collective action, body satisfaction, and self-esteem.

The present research applied the social identity approach to examine how the perceived legitimacy of weight-based discrimination among ingroup members influences their experience of their higher-weight identity and their well-being, and the conditions under which this occurs. Specifically, we investigated whether portraying weight-based discrimination as legitimate, as opposed to illegitimate, influenced higher-weight individuals' group identification, intentions to engage in collective action on behalf of their group, and their body satisfaction and self-esteem. The moderating role of group boundary permeability and the mediating role of group identification were also examined. North American adults with a self-reported BMI of or above 30 (N = 327) were randomly assigned to one of two experimental conditions: weight-based discrimination that was portrayed as legitimate or illegitimate by other ingroup members. Results revealed that portraying weight-based discrimination as being perceived as legitimate (versus illegitimate) among ingroup members significantly reduced group identification, but only among those who perceived their group's boundaries to be more permeable. For this particular group, reduced identification predicted, in turn, lower collective action intentions, body satisfaction, and self-esteem. This study highlights the damaging effect of legitimized discrimination for ingroup identification and the downstream consequences for collective action and well-being.

"Let's get physical" - or social: The role of physical activity versus social group memberships in predicting depression and anxiety over time.

BACKGROUND: Physical activity is often promoted as a way to prevent and combat anxiety and depression in adolescents. However, very little research has sought to establish whether the benefits of exercise arise from the excercise itself or from the social context in which it takes place. We explore the hypothesis that it is not physical activity on its own, but rather adolescents' engagement in group life (as part of a sports group or otherwise), that accounts for positive mental health effects associated with physical activity. METHODS AND RESULTS: We conducted a longitudinal study that tracked 558 high-school boys and found that anxiety and depression over time was not predicted by (a) T1 physical fitness as determined by 7 speed and agility tests, or (b) engaging in multiple sports as co-curricular activies at T1. In contrast, multiple group memberships - irrespective of the activity - predicted reduced depression and anxiety over time, particularly when these were groups that adolescents identified with and experienced as compatible with each other. LIMITATIONS: Limitations relate to (a) physical fitness only being measured at T1, (b) the absence of a measure of frequency and duration of physical activity, and (c) the homogeneity of the sample. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that group memberships and the social identities that adolescents derive from these groups (including, but not restricted to, those involving sport) function as a psychological resource to reduce anxiety and depression over time.

Promoting prosocial behavior in an unequal world.

Amid a global pandemic and the climate crisis, there is an increasing need to understand how to promote largescale, coordinated action between different groups. Yet certain factors such as inequality can hinder cooperation. We aimed to establish how to orient groups toward a superordinate goal when they have unequal resources. Participants were divided into two 'countries' and asked to assemble LEGO bricks into food (by building pieces in a certain order) to prevent starvation among 'the people'. One 'country' had few LEGO bricks whereas the other had an abundance, and the only way to maximize food creation was for the groups to work together. We assessed the efficacy of three diverse interventions on superordinate behavior and attitudes: compassion meditation training (Study 1), lower inequality (Study 2), and the introduction of a pro-sharing group norm by a confederate (Study 3). Compassion meditation training and altering the degree of inequality between groups did not have a clear effect on collaborative action. Only the introduction of a pro-sharing group norm enhanced sharing behavior, made participants feel more cooperative and reduced fears of being compassionate toward others. Our findings speak to the importance of leadership in promoting coordinated action to address challenges that face the superordinate group.

Unlocking collective cooperation in the midst of COVID-19: The role of social support in predicting the social class disparity in cooperation.

We examined whether (the lack of) social support can explain why researchers have found lower rates of adherence to follow public health guidelines amongst people who perceived themselves as coming from lower social class backgrounds during the COVID-19 pandemic. To do this, we surveyed 5818 participants from 10 countries during the first wave of lock-down. Contrary to previous findings, social class was not related to general adherence to COVID-19 regulations or desire to engage in citizenship behaviours (e.g., showing initiatives to help others during the pandemic). However, we found evidence of an indirect effect whereby those who perceived themselves as higher social class were more likely to be both the recipient and provider of social support which in turn predicted greater adherence and desire to engage in citizenship behaviours during the earlier wave of the pandemic. Our findings highlight the importance of social support in unlocking potential for collective cooperation (i.e., adherence to COVID-19 rules and desire to engage in citizenship behaviours). They suggest that instead of enforcing strict regulations, government authorities need to address existing social support barriers within lower income communities to facilitate cooperation from everyone in the community.

GROUPS 2 CONNECT: An online activity to maintain social connection and well-being during COVID-19.

COVID-19 has had significant negative consequences for well-being. As well as the primary effects of the virus itself, secondary effects have resulted from the social isolation caused by the lockdowns imposed to slow the spread of the virus. Recognising the toxic effects of isolation, researchers, practitioners and policy-makers are conscious of the need to mitigate the negative effects of social distancing. Drawing on insights from a large body of research on the Social Identity Approach to Health, we devised an online activity-GROUPS 2 CONNECT (G2C)-aimed at helping people to maintain social connectedness when face-to-face interaction was not possible. Across four studies (N = 1021), we found that after completing the G2C activity, participants reported an increase in perceived quality of social connection, perceived ability to stay connected and well-being, with results showing that for two of the three longitudinal studies these uplifts were stable over time, and for all studies, the uplifts remained consistently higher for those who reported completing their social connection goals. These findings provide initial evidence of the value of G2C as a tool to support social connection, thereby reducing the risk of social isolation.